International law prohibits the forcible annexation of territory, but not every change of sovereignty is unlawful. This article examines the legal foundations of the prohibition, the Stimson Doctrine, and territorial disputes involving Crimea, Greenland, the Golan Heights, and the Occupied Palestinian Territory.

Rules of engagement define when and how armed forces may use force during military operations. This article explains their relationship with the law of armed conflict, including self-defense, targeting restrictions, command authority, civilian protection, and legal responsibility.

Chemical weapons are prohibited under international law, but enforcing that prohibition remains a challenge. This article examines the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), the OPCW's verification and investigative powers, chemical agents such as VX and sarin, and the legal mechanisms for holding states and individuals accountable for chemical weapons use.

Is a formal declaration of war still legally required? This article examines Hague Convention III of 1907, the UN Charter, and the Geneva Conventions to explain when declarations are required, how armed conflicts can exist without them, and what the Iran conflicts reveal about modern international law.

The Third Geneva Convention establishes who qualifies as a prisoner of war and the legal protections governing captivity. This article examines combatant status, POW rights, humane treatment, criminal responsibility, and the rules governing release and repatriation after the cessation of active hostilities.

Brazil’s 1988 Constitution gives international treaties different legal status depending on their subject and approval process. This article examines treaty incorporation, the STF’s supralegal doctrine, Constitutional Amendment No. 45, and Brazil’s relationships with the International Court of Justice, International Criminal Court, and Inter-American Court of Human Rights.

Command responsibility establishes when military commanders and other superiors may be held criminally liable for crimes committed by subordinates. This article examines effective control, knowledge requirements, failures to prevent or punish crimes, ICC Article 28, and the landmark Čelebići and Bemba judgments.

Collective security under the UN Charter enables the Security Council to address threats to international peace through sanctions and military enforcement. This article examines the legal foundations of Chapter VII, the historical experiences of Korea, Kuwait, and Libya, and the limitations imposed by the veto, political disagreements, and dependence on member states.

A coup d'état is usually unconstitutional under domestic law, but international law does not impose one universal rule making every coup unlawful. This article explains regional anti-coup regimes, human rights, non-intervention, state responsibility, recognition, and state continuity.

Hybrid courts combine national and international elements to prosecute serious crimes, but they do not follow a single legal model. This article examines the Special Court for Sierra Leone, Cambodia’s Extraordinary Chambers, the Special Criminal Court in the Central African Republic, and the Kosovo Specialist Chambers, comparing their legal foundations, jurisdiction, judicial structures, and institutional limits.

UNCLOS compulsory conciliation allows states to initiate settlement proceedings in certain maritime disputes without the other party’s consent to that particular proceeding. This article examines when the procedure applies, how commissions operate under Annex V, and why their recommendations are non-binding. It also considers the Timor Sea conciliation between Timor-Leste and Australia.

How is the UN Secretary-General selected, and why can one permanent Security Council member block a candidate? This article explains the appointment procedure under Article 97 of the UN Charter, including nominations, straw polls, the General Assembly’s authority, the disputed 1950 precedent, and reforms shaping the 2026 selection process.

The proposed EU KIDS Act would restrict independent social media accounts for children under 15 and introduce safeguards for minors across digital services. This article explains the age limits, parental controls, privacy protections, AI chatbot rules, and how the proposal would interact with existing EU law.

Territorial waters, formally known as the territorial sea, may extend up to 12 nautical miles from legally determined baselines. Coastal States exercise sovereignty in this zone, but that authority is limited by rules on innocent passage, foreign ships, maritime boundaries, and neighboring zones such as the EEZ.

Innocent passage allows foreign ships to navigate through another State’s territorial sea under UNCLOS. The regime balances coastal-State sovereignty with navigational rights, defining when passage is lawful, when it becomes non-innocent, and what measures coastal States may take.