I. Introduction
Latin American international law has long been a driving force in shaping global legal norms. From the early post-colonial era to contemporary times, the region has contributed distinct legal principles rooted in sovereignty, human rights, and regional cooperation. The principles of non-intervention, diplomatic protection, and legal solidarity emerged from Latin America's unique historical experiences, significantly influencing the development of modern international law.
This article explores Latin American international law from its origins to its current challenges and resistance to external pressures. The legal traditions in the region stem from a blend of indigenous customs, European legal systems, and innovative doctrines developed by Latin American jurists. These foundations have allowed the region to establish a strong legal identity while navigating the complexities of global politics. Unlike many Western perspectives on international law, Latin American contributions emphasize regionalism, legal pluralism, and the protection of national sovereignty.
Over time, Latin American states have used international law as both a shield and a tool for diplomatic engagement. The doctrine of non-intervention, for example, was crafted as a response to foreign interventionism, and Latin America played a pivotal role in shaping the Inter-American human rights system. Today, the region faces evolving challenges, including climate change, economic disputes, and the protection of indigenous rights. Understanding the trajectory of Latin American international law provides insights into how the region continues to assert its legal and political agency in an increasingly interconnected world.
II. Historical Foundations
Colonial Legal Legacy and Early Influences
The origins of Latin American international law trace back to the colonial era, when European powers imposed legal frameworks on indigenous civilizations. The Spanish and Portuguese Crowns established legal systems that merged European doctrines with local customs, creating a foundation that would later shape the region’s international legal identity. Spanish jurists such as Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de las Casas laid early groundwork for principles related to sovereignty, human rights, and the rights of indigenous peoples. Their writings questioned the legality of conquest and argued for the recognition of indigenous communities within international legal discourse.
During this period, the Laws of the Indies (Leyes de Indias) and the Siete Partidas codified governance structures that influenced Latin American legal traditions long after independence. These laws regulated trade, property rights, and political authority within the Spanish and Portuguese empires, setting the stage for how Latin America would later engage with international law. Despite their colonial origins, these legal codes contributed to the development of legal institutions that persisted into the post-independence era.
As Latin America moved toward independence in the early 19th century, the region’s leaders sought to establish new legal doctrines that broke away from colonial rule. The influence of European legal traditions remained, but local adaptations emerged, blending elements of civil law with evolving concepts of international law. The shift from colonial subjugation to sovereignty played a defining role in how Latin America engaged with global legal norms.
The Post-Independence Legal Order
With independence movements sweeping across Latin America in the early 19th century, newly formed republics had to create legal systems that balanced their aspirations for self-determination with the realities of international diplomacy. The region’s international legal philosophy began to emphasize non-intervention, a principle designed to protect fragile new states from European and later U.S. interference. This legal stance, deeply rooted in the doctrines of Latin American thinkers like Andrés Bello and Juan Bautista Alberdi, sought to ensure sovereignty while fostering peaceful regional cooperation.
Latin America also played a crucial role in early attempts at regional diplomatic engagement. The Congress of Panama in 1826, convened by Simón Bolívar, aimed to establish a legal and political alliance among Latin American nations. Although it did not achieve its ambitious goal of forming a unified regional federation, it laid the foundation for future legal cooperation. Bolívar’s vision for a regional legal framework anticipated later developments in Latin American international law, particularly regarding diplomatic protection and regional arbitration mechanisms.
Throughout the 19th century, Latin American jurists also contributed to the doctrine of diplomatic protection, arguing that states had a legal obligation to safeguard the rights of their citizens abroad. This principle was a response to European and U.S. interventions that often justified military actions under the pretext of protecting foreign nationals. Latin American countries resisted such justifications by formulating legal arguments centered on equal sovereignty and the rejection of foreign-imposed legal claims.
The Emergence of Regional Legal Doctrines
By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Latin America had developed distinct legal doctrines that challenged dominant Western interpretations of international law. One of the most influential contributions was the Calvo Doctrine, formulated by Argentine jurist Carlos Calvo. This doctrine asserted that foreign investors should seek redress through local legal systems rather than appealing to their home governments for diplomatic intervention. The Drago Doctrine, proposed by Argentine Foreign Minister Luis María Drago, further reinforced the region’s resistance to external coercion by rejecting the use of military force to collect sovereign debt.
These doctrines became key pillars of Latin American international law, influencing the legal frameworks of regional institutions. They reflected a broader commitment to legal equality among nations and opposition to the coercive tactics employed by powerful states. Such legal innovations laid the groundwork for the principles later adopted by the Organization of American States (OAS) and international human rights institutions.
The historical foundations of Latin American international law demonstrate a consistent pattern of legal resistance to external dominance while fostering regional unity. The region’s legal evolution was not merely a reaction to external pressures but a proactive effort to shape international law in ways that aligned with Latin America’s unique political and social realities. These foundations continue to influence contemporary legal debates, from sovereignty disputes to human rights protections, reinforcing Latin America's enduring impact on the global legal order.
III. Key Contributions to International Law
The Principle of Non-Intervention
Latin American international law has been a pioneer in promoting the principle of non-intervention, a concept that has shaped diplomatic relations in the region and influenced global legal norms. This doctrine emerged in response to the repeated interventions of European powers and, later, the United States in Latin American affairs. It asserts that no state has the right to interfere in the internal affairs of another, emphasizing sovereignty as a core tenet of international law.
The principle gained prominence in the 19th century through the Calvo Doctrine, which opposed foreign intervention in legal disputes involving foreign nationals. The Drago Doctrine, formulated in 1902, reinforced this stance by rejecting military intervention as a means of collecting sovereign debt. These doctrines reflected Latin America’s resistance to economic imperialism and its commitment to the legal equality of nations.
Latin America's influence on non-intervention became globally recognized when it was incorporated into the Charter of the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1948. Article 19 of the OAS Charter explicitly prohibits intervention by any state in the affairs of another. This commitment to sovereignty has shaped diplomatic relations within the region, limiting military interventions and promoting legal dispute resolution mechanisms. The United Nations Charter, particularly Article 2(4), also echoes Latin America’s contributions to this legal principle, demonstrating the region’s lasting impact on international law.
Human Rights Initiatives and the Inter-American System
Latin America has been at the forefront of human rights law, significantly influencing global frameworks. The establishment of the Inter-American Human Rights System is one of its most notable contributions, providing legal mechanisms to protect human rights beyond national legal systems.
The American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man (1948) was the first international human rights document adopted before the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This marked Latin America’s proactive role in shaping modern human rights discourse. Following this, the American Convention on Human Rights (1969) established the legal basis for the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, which has become a leading institution in the enforcement of human rights in the region.
The Inter-American Court has issued landmark rulings on cases involving state responsibility for human rights violations, including enforced disappearances, extrajudicial killings, and indigenous rights. Unlike many international courts, it has developed progressive jurisprudence that holds states accountable and mandates comprehensive reparations for victims. The court’s advisory opinions have also been instrumental in interpreting international human rights law, influencing not only Latin America but also global human rights jurisprudence.
One of the key areas where Latin America has led is the protection of indigenous rights. Cases such as Awas Tingni v. Nicaragua (2001) set a precedent for recognizing indigenous land rights under international law. The court’s rulings have required governments to demarcate and respect ancestral territories, significantly shaping indigenous rights law worldwide.
Environmental Law and Sustainable Development
In recent decades, Latin American international law has made significant contributions to environmental protection and sustainable development. The region is home to some of the world's most biodiverse ecosystems, including the Amazon rainforest, making environmental law a crucial aspect of its international legal engagement.
Latin American states have played an active role in global environmental agreements, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Additionally, the Escazú Agreement (2018) stands as a milestone in international law, being the first treaty in the world to include binding provisions on environmental democracy, access to justice, and the protection of environmental defenders.
This regional treaty mandates greater transparency and public participation in environmental decision-making, reinforcing the legal link between human rights and environmental protection. It also requires states to protect environmental activists, a pressing issue given the high number of environmental defenders killed in Latin America.
Latin America’s legal innovations in sustainable development have extended beyond treaty-making. Countries like Ecuador and Bolivia have incorporated rights of nature into their national legal frameworks, recognizing ecosystems as legal entities with rights to protection. These legal advancements have influenced global environmental law, inspiring similar initiatives in other regions.
IV. Influential Legal Scholars and Jurists
Alejandro Álvarez: Defining Latin America’s Legal Identity
Chilean jurist Alejandro Álvarez (1868–1960) was a pioneer in conceptualizing Latin American international law as a distinct field. His most significant contribution was the argument that Latin America had its own legal principles, customs, and diplomatic practices, separate from those of Europe and North America. Álvarez challenged the Eurocentric view of international law, emphasizing regional legal traditions shaped by colonial history, sovereignty struggles, and economic dependence.
One of his most notable works, The New Foundations of International Law (1929), outlined his belief that international law should be dynamic, adapting to political and social changes. He argued that traditional legal frameworks did not adequately address the realities of Latin American states, which often faced economic imperialism, foreign intervention, and political instability. His work pushed for the recognition of regionalism as a legitimate force in shaping international legal norms.
Álvarez’s ideas influenced the development of Pan-American legal cooperation, contributing to the legal foundation of the Organization of American States (OAS). His emphasis on regional legal identity continues to inspire debates on the role of Latin America in global legal discourse, particularly in areas of human rights, non-intervention, and economic sovereignty.
Ruy Barbosa: Champion of Legal Equality and Sovereignty
Brazilian jurist and diplomat Ruy Barbosa (1849–1923) is best known for his defense of legal equality among nations and his opposition to colonialist legal doctrines. He played a pivotal role in the 1907 Hague Conference, where he fiercely argued that Latin American nations should be treated as equals to European powers in international law. His speeches earned him the title The Eagle of The Hague, symbolizing Latin America’s resistance to legal discrimination.
Barbosa’s legal philosophy was rooted in the idea that international law must be based on equal sovereignty rather than power dynamics. He criticized the unequal treatment of Latin American states in international disputes and resisted European legal doctrines that justified intervention based on debt collection or "civilizing missions." His arguments helped solidify Latin America’s opposition to coercive diplomacy and shaped early legal doctrines advocating for self-determination.
His influence extended beyond diplomacy into constitutional law, where he helped draft key legal frameworks in Brazil. His insistence on legal precision, respect for human rights, and judicial independence had a lasting impact on both domestic and international legal systems in Latin America. His legacy is particularly relevant in contemporary discussions on economic sovereignty, international arbitration, and the role of small states in global governance.
Carlos Saavedra Lamas: Nobel Laureate and Peacemaker
Argentine jurist Carlos Saavedra Lamas (1878–1959) was a central figure in Latin American peace diplomacy and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1936 for his efforts in resolving the Chaco War (1932–1935) between Bolivia and Paraguay. His legal philosophy was deeply influenced by non-interventionism and the belief that international law should serve as a tool for conflict resolution rather than coercion.
Saavedra Lamas was instrumental in drafting the Anti-War Pact of 1933, a treaty that reinforced Latin America’s commitment to peaceful conflict resolution and rejection of military intervention. This pact was later incorporated into regional and international legal frameworks, influencing the development of the United Nations Charter’s provisions on peaceful dispute resolution.
His contributions extended beyond conflict resolution to human rights and international labor law. As President of the League of Nations (1936–1937), he worked to integrate Latin America into global governance structures, ensuring that regional legal traditions were recognized in global legal discourse. His commitment to peaceful diplomacy, multilateralism, and legal cooperation remains influential in contemporary debates on regional security, humanitarian law, and diplomatic negotiations.
V. Regional Organizations and Legal Frameworks
The Organization of American States (OAS) and Legal Cooperation
The Organization of American States (OAS) has been a cornerstone of Latin American international law, promoting legal cooperation, conflict resolution, and the protection of human rights. Established in 1948, the OAS was founded on principles that reinforced regional solidarity, state sovereignty, and legal equality among nations. It sought to create a legal framework that would prevent foreign intervention while fostering diplomatic solutions to regional disputes.
One of the OAS’s most important contributions is the Charter of the Organization of American States, which codifies key principles of non-intervention, peaceful dispute resolution, and democracy promotion. The OAS has played an essential role in mediating regional conflicts, particularly through its Inter-American Juridical Committee, which advises member states on international legal issues. Over the decades, the OAS has also helped establish legal norms for regional trade agreements, environmental protection, and transnational crime prevention.
In addition to legal diplomacy, the OAS has been instrumental in responding to democratic crises in Latin America. The adoption of the Inter-American Democratic Charter (2001) created a legal mechanism to address authoritarian threats, electoral fraud, and constitutional violations. Although enforcement remains a challenge, the OAS has used legal tools to condemn coups, protect human rights defenders, and strengthen regional governance.
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights and Legal Accountability
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights, established in 1979, is one of the most influential legal institutions in Latin America. As the judicial body of the Inter-American Human Rights System, it has set legal precedents on state accountability, indigenous rights, and transitional justice. The court operates under the American Convention on Human Rights, which has been ratified by most Latin American countries.
One of the most significant contributions of the Inter-American Court is its enforcement of state responsibility for human rights violations. The court has issued landmark rulings on cases involving forced disappearances, extrajudicial killings, and the protection of marginalized communities. It has developed a unique jurisprudence on reparations, requiring states to offer compensation, public apologies, and institutional reforms to prevent future violations.
The court has also played a leading role in defending indigenous land rights. In cases such as Awas Tingni v. Nicaragua (2001) and Saramaka v. Suriname (2007), it ruled that governments must legally recognize and protect indigenous territories. These decisions have had a major impact on environmental law and corporate accountability, as they require consultation and consent from indigenous communities before large-scale development projects are approved.
Despite its achievements, the Inter-American Court faces enforcement challenges, as some states resist compliance with its rulings. However, it remains a powerful legal institution, influencing constitutional reforms, domestic court decisions, and regional legal debates on human rights enforcement.
Economic Integration Agreements and Regional Trade Law
Latin America has developed regional trade agreements and economic legal frameworks to promote cooperation and economic sovereignty. Some of the most significant trade blocs include MERCOSUR (Southern Common Market), the Pacific Alliance, and ALBA (Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America). These organizations have created legal frameworks for trade, dispute resolution, and economic integration, reinforcing the region’s commitment to multilateralism.
MERCOSUR, established in 1991, is one of the strongest legal mechanisms for regional trade regulation. It has developed a common legal framework for trade tariffs, investment laws, and commercial dispute settlement. MERCOSUR’s Permanent Review Court provides a legal forum for resolving disputes between member states, reinforcing legal predictability in regional commerce.
The Pacific Alliance, founded in 2011, represents a more market-oriented trade bloc, focusing on free trade, investment, and regional economic cooperation. Unlike MERCOSUR, it aligns more closely with global trade standards and promotes integration with Asia-Pacific markets.
ALBA, in contrast, was created as an alternative to Western-dominated trade agreements, emphasizing economic sovereignty, fair trade, and South-South cooperation. It rejects neoliberal trade policies and promotes legal frameworks that prioritize social and economic development over profit-driven trade models.
Latin America’s regional economic agreements have strengthened legal cooperation on trade, investment, and economic governance. However, tensions between protectionist and free-market models continue to shape the legal evolution of regional trade law. These frameworks demonstrate the region’s legal adaptability in balancing economic integration with national sovereignty.
VI. Contemporary Challenges and Developments
Responses to Authoritarianism and Democratic Erosion
Latin American international law is facing increasing challenges due to the resurgence of authoritarian tendencies and democratic backsliding in the region. Several countries have witnessed constitutional crises, weakened judicial independence, and the erosion of democratic institutions. In response, regional legal frameworks, particularly through the Organization of American States (OAS) and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, have attempted to reinforce democratic norms and prevent further declines in governance.
The Inter-American Democratic Charter (2001) was created as a legal instrument to protect democracy in the region. However, enforcement remains inconsistent. In cases like Venezuela and Nicaragua, where authoritarian regimes have systematically undermined democratic institutions, the OAS has struggled to apply meaningful legal consequences. Despite official condemnations and diplomatic pressure, these governments have often ignored or rejected regional legal interventions.
Moreover, judicial manipulation and political interference in domestic legal systems threaten the effectiveness of Latin American international law. Some governments have used courts to suppress opposition, restrict press freedoms, and alter electoral laws. While regional legal bodies have condemned such practices, the lack of a strong enforcement mechanism makes it difficult to hold leaders accountable. The challenge remains in strengthening international legal tools that can effectively protect democracy without infringing on national sovereignty.
Climate Change and Environmental Protection Laws
Environmental law has become a central issue in Latin American international law, particularly as the region faces severe climate-related challenges, such as deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and natural disasters. Latin American nations have been at the forefront of creating legal mechanisms to address these issues, but economic pressures, corporate interests, and weak enforcement mechanisms continue to pose challenges.
One of the most significant legal developments is the Escazú Agreement (2018), a groundbreaking treaty focused on environmental democracy, public participation, and the protection of environmental defenders. Latin America is one of the most dangerous regions for environmental activists, with numerous cases of violence against indigenous leaders and conservationists. The agreement provides a legal framework to hold governments accountable for protecting environmental defenders and ensuring transparency in environmental decision-making.
However, economic interests in extractive industries—such as mining, oil drilling, and large-scale agriculture—often clash with environmental protection laws. Governments, seeking economic growth, sometimes prioritize foreign investments over environmental conservation. This has led to legal disputes between indigenous communities, environmental organizations, and multinational corporations. International legal mechanisms, including cases brought before the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, have played a role in defending environmental rights. Yet, implementation gaps and corporate influence make enforcement challenging.
Latin American international law continues to evolve in response to climate challenges, but legal mechanisms need to be strengthened to balance economic development with environmental sustainability. The push for greener legal frameworks will likely define the next phase of international legal developments in the region.
Indigenous Rights and Legal Pluralism
Latin America has made significant strides in recognizing indigenous rights, yet legal conflicts over land, resources, and autonomy persist. International legal frameworks, such as the American Convention on Human Rights and the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, have provided strong protections, but national governments often fail to fully implement these legal commitments.
One of the most critical legal debates involves legal pluralism—the recognition of indigenous legal systems alongside national legal frameworks. Many indigenous communities operate under customary laws that govern land use, justice, and governance. However, national courts frequently fail to recognize or respect these legal traditions, leading to legal conflicts over jurisdiction and rights enforcement.
Cases brought before the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, such as Saramaka v. Suriname (2007) and Yakye Axa v. Paraguay (2005), have reinforced the need for states to respect indigenous land rights. These rulings emphasize consultation and consent before any government or corporate project affects indigenous territories. However, enforcement remains weak, with many indigenous communities still facing displacement, resource exploitation, and violence.
A major challenge in Latin American international law is ensuring that indigenous rights are not just legally recognized but actively protected. Strengthening legal pluralism, enforcing court rulings, and increasing indigenous representation in legal systems will be key to addressing historical injustices and ensuring greater legal autonomy for indigenous nations.
VII. Latin America's Influence on Global Legal Norms
Participation in International Legal Institutions
Latin American states have played a significant role in shaping global legal institutions, contributing to the evolution of international law beyond the regional level. The region’s engagement in multilateral organizations such as the United Nations (UN), the International Court of Justice (ICJ), and the International Criminal Court (ICC) has reinforced principles of non-intervention, human rights protection, and legal equality.
One of Latin America’s most influential contributions was its advocacy for the prohibition of military interventions in international disputes. The principles of non-intervention and peaceful dispute resolution, developed through the Calvo and Drago Doctrines, were later incorporated into global legal frameworks such as the United Nations Charter (Article 2.4) and the ICJ’s legal principles on state sovereignty. These doctrines, first articulated in the early 20th century, laid the foundation for modern debates on sovereign equality and international dispute resolution.
Latin American nations have also been at the forefront of human rights advocacy at the UN, actively contributing to the drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Figures such as Carlos Saavedra Lamas, a Nobel Peace Prize-winning Argentine jurist, played a crucial role in the early development of international humanitarian law. The region's diplomatic efforts helped establish legal mechanisms for the protection of vulnerable populations, particularly indigenous groups, women, and refugees.
In international criminal law, Latin America was instrumental in the formation of the International Criminal Court (ICC). Many Latin American countries were early signatories of the Rome Statute (1998), which created the ICC. The region has consistently supported the prosecution of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide, reinforcing its commitment to accountability in global justice systems.
Exportation of Legal Innovations and Regional Legal Doctrines
Latin America’s legal doctrines have influenced global legal norms, particularly in the areas of investment law, human rights, and environmental law. The Calvo Doctrine, which asserts that foreign investors should resolve disputes within the local legal system rather than seeking diplomatic intervention, has influenced modern bilateral investment treaties (BITs) and international arbitration agreements. While international economic law has evolved to include investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) mechanisms, Latin America remains a leading voice in challenging corporate impunity and reforming arbitration systems to protect national interests.
In human rights law, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights has set progressive legal precedents that have impacted legal systems worldwide. Landmark cases such as Velásquez Rodríguez v. Honduras (1988) established the doctrine of state responsibility for human rights violations, which has been cited in UN Human Rights Committee reports and international human rights litigation. The region’s emphasis on reparations, collective rights, and state accountability has shaped legal discourse at the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights.
Latin America has also contributed to legal frameworks for environmental protection. The Escazú Agreement (2018) is one of the first binding international treaties that explicitly links environmental law with human rights, mandating access to information, public participation, and the protection of environmental defenders. The treaty has influenced global environmental governance, particularly in discussions surrounding climate justice and sustainable development.
South-South Legal Cooperation and Global Influence
Beyond influencing Western-centric legal frameworks, Latin America has engaged in South-South legal cooperation, collaborating with Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean on legal capacity-building, trade agreements, and judicial reforms. The region has shared its expertise in transitional justice, constitutional law, and human rights protection, particularly in post-conflict societies.
Latin American states have contributed to the global movement for legal pluralism, advocating for the recognition of indigenous legal systems in international law. The region’s constitutional courts, particularly in Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia, have recognized the rights of nature, inspiring similar legal movements in India, New Zealand, and Canada. These innovations demonstrate Latin America's leadership in redefining legal concepts to include environmental justice and indigenous legal traditions.
Latin America’s engagement in global governance forums, such as the G77, BRICS legal dialogues, and UN climate summits, has positioned the region as a key actor in reforming international law to address economic inequality, corporate accountability, and sustainable development. The region continues to challenge neocolonial legal structures, advocating for a more just and inclusive international legal order.
VIII. Conclusion
Latin American international law has evolved into a dynamic and influential force within the global legal system. From its early foundations in the post-colonial struggle for sovereignty to its contemporary legal innovations, the region has consistently shaped global legal norms in non-intervention, human rights, environmental law, and trade regulation. The principles and doctrines developed in Latin America have not only strengthened regional legal cooperation but have also left a lasting imprint on international institutions such as the United Nations, International Criminal Court, and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights.
One of Latin America's most defining contributions is its commitment to legal resistance against external domination. Doctrines such as the Calvo and Drago Principles established the right of states to regulate foreign investment and resist economic coercion, ideas that continue to influence international trade and investment law. The region's legal framework for human rights protection, particularly through the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, has pioneered legal precedents in areas such as state accountability, indigenous rights, and transitional justice. Similarly, the Escazú Agreement has placed Latin America at the forefront of global environmental law, linking climate action with human rights protections.
Despite these advancements, challenges remain. The rise of authoritarianism, democratic erosion, economic instability, and environmental threats pose significant tests for Latin American international law. Strengthening regional enforcement mechanisms, ensuring judicial independence, and integrating indigenous legal traditions will be critical in maintaining Latin America's legal leadership. The future of Latin American international law depends on its ability to adapt to global transformations while continuing to champion sovereignty, justice, and multilateral cooperation. As international legal frameworks become increasingly complex and contested, Latin America’s contributions will remain essential in shaping a more equitable and sustainable global legal order.
References
Primary Sources
Organization of American States (OAS), Charter of the Organization of American States, 1948. Available at: https://www.oas.org
Inter-American Court of Human Rights, American Convention on Human Rights, 1969. Available at: https://www.corteidh.or.cr
United Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948. Available at: https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights
United Nations, United Nations Charter, 1945. Available at: https://www.un.org/en/about-us/un-charter
Escazú Agreement, Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean, 2018. Available at: https://www.cepal.org/en/escazuagreement
Books and Academic Sources
Obregón, L. (2009). Latin American International Law: Regionalism and Resistance. In Handbook of International Law. Syrian Network for Human Rights.
Bello, A. (1832). Principios de Derecho de Gentes. Chile: Imprenta Nacional.
Calvo, C. (1862). Le Droit International Théorique et Pratique. Paris: A. Durand.
Drago, L. M. (1902). La Doctrina Drago y el Derecho Internacional. Buenos Aires: Librería Nacional.
Álvarez, A. (1910). Origen y Desarrollo del Derecho Internacional Americano. Rio de Janeiro: Congreso Científico Latinoamericano.
Case Law and Legal Doctrines
Velásquez Rodríguez v. Honduras, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Judgment of July 29, 1988.
Awas Tingni v. Nicaragua, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Judgment of August 31, 2001.
Saramaka v. Suriname, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Judgment of November 28, 2007.
Oil Platforms Case (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), ICJ Reports, 2003.
Reports and Institutional Documents
Amnesty International. (2022). Human Rights in the Americas: Trends and Challenges. Available at: https://www.amnesty.org
United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC). (2019). Environmental Governance and Legal Frameworks in Latin America. Available at: https://www.cepal.org
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